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After the death of Salome Alexandra in 67 BCE, her younger son, Aristobulus, ousted Hyrcanus II from the throne and seized it for himself, with the support of the Sadducees. Forceful as he was, he held it for only four years, partly, because of Antipater, an Idumean upstart, only recently converted to Judaism, who decided to cause trouble for his own benefit by backing the claims of the ousted weakling, Hyrcanus, thus causing civil war in Judea, and partly, because the Jews were about to become a political 'football' on the Roman international scene, with little or no control over events that affected themselves.

Antipater began his campaign to become the power behind the throne by persuading Hyrcanus to enlist help from king Aretas of the Nabateans in the south, against his usurping brother. The help was effective, and after a battle, the defeated Aristobulus retreated into the Temple where the Sadducees gave him refuge. News of this reached the Roman general, Pompey, in 65 BCE, as he arrived in Syria, intending to extend Rome's widening frontiers as far as the river Euphrates. The weak remnant of the Seleucid dynasty collapsed immediately, but the volatile nature of Judea was a potential danger. As his general, Scaurus set out to deal with Judea, he was met with two deputations asking for his support! Antipater offered the bigger bribe, so Scaurus ordered Aretas to withdraw. He did! And Aristobulus was confirmed as King.

By 64, Pompey was master of Damascus, and there he received three delegations from the Jews, each appealing for help! The Sadducees asked for continuing support for Aristobulus, while Antipater appealed to the Romans to support the 'rightful King', (with himself as guarantor of friendship towards the Romans); the third delegation came from the Pharisees, asking the Romans to rid them of all the Hasmoneans, and promising to become a quiet, 'religious' state, governed only by the High Priest. While Pompey delayed his response, Aristobulus asserted himself and made another attempt to seize power. It was a big mistake!

Pompey sent his soldiers to Jerusalem, where they found the gates locked against them. Aristobulus and his friends had retreated into the Temple again. At Antipater's suggestion, Hyrcanus opened the city gates, and invited the Romans to enter! It took the Romans three months to break the resistance in the Temple, but eventually in 63 BCE, its walls were breached, and many priests were massacred. Pompey then committed sacrilege in the Jews'eyes by striding into the very heart of the Temple, the Holy of Holies itself. Aristobulus was taken captive to Rome, where eventually he was forced to walk in Pompey's Triumphal Procession. After only 80 years of political independence, the Jews were subservient again, this time for ever, - to the Romans.

Antipater virtually 'ruled' for Rome, under Hyrcanus, who was demoted to the title of 'ethnarc', or 'prince'. Even so, Antipater could not prevent the Roman Governor of Syria from coming to Jerusalem to plunder treasure from the Temple. In the Roman power struggle between Pompey and his rival, Julius Caesar, Aristobulus was freed, to cause more trouble in Judea, and then poisoned before he could. Pompey then ordered the execution of Alexander, elder son of Aristobulus, thus leaving only the younger, Antigonus, still alive. By 49 BCE, Caesar was hounding Pompey who was murdered when he arrived in Egypt for 'safety'. (Egyptian politicians did not want a Roman war in their territory! ).

Caesar went there, however, (and met Cleopatra), while Antipater ordered all Jews in Alexandria to support Caesar, thus ensuring his success, - and his gratitude to the Jews. In 49 BCE, Caesar's gratitude was expressed in the Jewish Settlement he made while in Syria. He by-passed Antigonus, and confirmed the age-ing Hyrcanus as both Ethnarc and High Priest, and acknowledged Antipater as the 'Authority in Judea', responsible only to Caesar himself. Antipater was awarded Roman citizenship, and exempted from paying taxes. The Jews throughout the Roman empire were given the freedom to practise their own religion, and they were given permission to repair the walls of Jerusalem.

Antipater immediately appointed his son, Phasuel, as Governor of Jerusalem, and another son, Herod, as Governor of Galilee. Herod distinguished himself straightaway by crushing a large Galilean uprising under Hezekiah of Galilee with great cruelty,. Three years later, in 44 BCE, Caesar was murdered in Rome, by Brutus and Cassius, - and Antipater was poisoned in Judea, only to be succeeded by Herod, who betrothed himself to Mariamne, the young grand-daughter of Hyrcanus, thus acquiring 'royal' status for himself.

Caesar's murderers were beaten at Philippi, by a new Roman coalition between Mark Antony, and the young great-nephew of Julius Caesar, Octavian. In all this there was little change for the Jews.

Antony, was the dominant Roman in the East. Herod quickly sent presents to him and became 'friends', and in turn was confirmed in situ, thus completely by-passing Hyrcanus.

By 40 BCE, however, Antony had succumbed to the charms of Cleopatra in Egypt and was more concerned to please her than anyone else, so failed to help Herod in his time of danger. Antigonus had stirred up so much trouble in Judea with the help of Rome's enemies, the Parthians of Persia, that Phasuel had committed suicide, Hyrcanus was exiled, and Herod escaped to his fortress at Masada, with his family for safety. Antigonus was proclaimed King!

Herod escaped to Rome where to his surprise, Antony Octavian and the Senate elected him to be King of the Jews, but responsible to them. Herod returned, gathered an army, and gained control again of Galilee. With Roman help, Herod sieged Jerusalem for 5 months, until Antigonus surrendered, - before being executed. King Herod then married Mariamne, and was in control. He straightway levied a very heavy tax on all the wealthy Sadducees, and began to build his fortune. He was an astute business man, and became very rich.

During these events lthe ordinary religious folk of Judea turned again to God, praying and hoping that He would send them a new king, from the tribe of King David, a king who would rule Jerusalem as an earthly centre of God's Kingdom, ruling justly and righteously for the benefit of all. God's 'anointed one', (in Hebrew, 'messiah', and in Greek, 'christos'), became the subject of their prayers and psalms sung in the synagogues all through Judea. The pseudopigraphical 'Psalms of Solomon' contain some of these, especially PsSol 18. The Pharisees and the prophets now had hopes of a new earthly King, and the apocalyptic ideas of the heavenly 'Son of Man' as the substance of their religious hopes for the future.

King Herod the Great ruled from 37until his death in 4 BCE, keeping his throne through all the changing times for Rome, as its Republic disintegrated in political confusion. At first, however, his plans to extend his territory were thwarted by Cleopatra who persuaded Antony to give her the coastal areas of Judea. She was also a conspirator in plots to replace Herod with Mariamne's brother, Aristobulus, as king, and then persuaded Antony to order Herod to fight the Nabateans. Old Hyrcanus and Aristobulus were executed by Herod, without mercy.

Antony's credibility at Rome was in ruins. Octavian's navy soon trapped the Egyptian fleet at Actium in 31 BCE, after which both Cleopatra and Antony committed suicide. Herod quickly and successfully changed his allegiance to Octavian who recognised in him a reliable ally. Octavian took personal possession of wealthy Egypt, and proclaimed himself Augustus, the sole ruler of Rome.

Herod reorganised the Jews. He created a new civil service loyal to himself. He appointed the High Priest himself, (several times), thus weakening the Sadducees' influence. Only the Pharisees kept his favour! They quietly pursued their religious life,(always praying for God's Kingdom to come), while in Jerusalem the Schools of Hillel and Shammai flourished, teaching many youngsters from the Diaspora, who were sent to Jerusalem for their education.

Herod built many new cities in the Greek style, especially the great port of Caesarea, and a huge aqueduct to improve the irrigation system of the Jordan valley. He was a patron of the arts, and the new Quinquennial Games in honour of Augustus. He transformed Jerusalem with a hippodrome, a new theatre, public baths, two huge palaces, and most of all, by supplying all the white marble for the rebuilding of the Temple. This was his most magnificent project, so big it was not completed until many years after his death. In spite of all this, and the prosperity he provided, with well-paid employment for the Jews, they continued to dislike him, remembering his suspect ancestry, and his cruelty to them, and his family. (Mariamne, and several sons, were executed when he suspected them of treason!). They objected most of all to a Roman eagle being set up, overlooking the Temple, and when some tore it down, thinking Herod had died, Herod's cruelty again was extreme.

Herod was painfully ill for many years, and could gain no relief from medicine. At times he was almost insane. More sons were executed, until his own death came as a relief to all.